Efforts at prohibition
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
(members include China and Russia) defines cyberwar to include
dissemination of information "harmful to the spiritual, moral and
cultural spheres of other states". In September 2011, these countries
proposed to the UN Secretary General a document called "International
code of conduct for information security". The approach was not endorsed by western countries as it entailed too many hints on political censorship of the internet.
In contrast, the United States' approach focuses on physical and economic damage and injury, putting political concerns under freedom of speech. This difference of opinion has led to reluctance in the West to pursue global cyber arms control agreements. However, American General Keith B. Alexander did endorse talks with Russia over a proposal to limit military attacks in cyberspace.[102] In June 2013, Barack Obama and Vladimir Putin agreed to install a secure Cyberwar-Hotline
providing "a direct secure voice communications line between the US
cybersecurity coordinator and the Russian deputy secretary of the
security council, should there be a need to directly manage a crisis
situation arising from an ICT security incident." (White House quote)
A Ukrainian professor of International Law, Alexander Merezhko, has
developed a project called the International Convention on Prohibition
of Cyberwar in Internet. According to this project, cyberwar is defined
as the use of Internet and related technological means by one state
against political, economic, technological and information sovereignty
and independence of any other state. Professor Merezhko's project
suggests that the Internet ought to remain free from warfare tactics and
be treated as an international landmark. He states that the Internet
(cyberspace) is a "common heritage of mankind."
Hacktivism is a form of cyber warfare that is strictly politically
motivated. Examples include Web site defacements, URL redirection,
denial-of-service attacks, information theft and dumping, web site
parodies, typosquatting, and virtual sabotage. Denning explains in her
book The ethics of cyber conflict. The Handbook of Information and
Computer Ethics(2008) how hacktivism has spurred the desire for proper rights and laws in cyberspace.
